Groupthink
...ge in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action." In a groupthink situation, each member of the group attempts to conform his or her opinions to what they believe to be the consensus of the group. This results in a situation in which the group ultimately agrees on an action which each member might normally consider to be unwise otherwise called as the risky shift. The risky shift occurs when the group collectively agrees on a course of action that is likewise more extreme than they would have made if asked individually . Certainly, there are many respected individuals who would assert that there are many routine occasions when a groupthink mode is actually helpful because it makes for a speedy and amicable consensus on issues of minor importance. Ultimately, however, it has been demonstrated in more ways than one that consensus, and not groupthink, is what is necessary to be achieved if an effective decision is to be made. Therefore, it is this highly negative environment of having a group situation that is extremely cohesive, repressive, led in a biased way, and unreserved acceptance and fear to express divergent thinking on the member’s part that contributes to defective decision making as a whole . These factors, and several others, create norms for conforming in a homogeneous group so strong that cause members to be highly concerned about maintaining unanimity so that they fail to critically evaluate their options and consequently make a poor decision. For the phenomenon of groupthink to occur, a specific team dynamic has to be built in order for the combination of conformity, commitment, and circumstance to create a situation for groupthink to occur. As teams move through stages of team-building, they increase acquaintance, attraction and commitment to the team. These are most pronounced in the "norming" stage where unwritten expectations about conduct are formed. As cohesion increases, norms are used to set standards of performance, and members exercise sanctions to increase conformity and reduce deviance from norms . When a very strong culture is built with high conformity, groupthink can also occur. The effects of groupthink combine to reduce innovation and decision making effectiveness. Inversely, the same factors that build cohesion can be facilitated to reduce cohesion and groupthink. Groupthink occurs when the pressures to conform are so great, that independent thinking and action are restricted. The primary symptoms of groupthink include "illusion of invulnerability" which happens when a group thinks that they cannot go wrong. Confidence among the members of the group is remarkably high and is reflected in the decisions that they make . A "belief in inherent morality of the group" occurs when the group thinks tremendously of their morality. The group believes that it is doing the right thing in all circumstances. "Collective rationalization" is another symptom of Groupthink. Groups who experience this believe that nothing can be wrong with their plan even if there is significant evidence to prove otherwise. A lack of creativity and a disregard for others' options is a characteristic of groups with "out-group stereotypes." Groups often pay little attention to what outsiders have to say, and this can be detrimental. "Self-censorship" occurs when group members don't share their ideas with the rest of the group because of fear of being rejected. The "illusion of unanimity" explains that silence can often be interpreted as acceptance. All of these are symptoms of groupthink. If one or more of these are commonplace in a particular group, change must occur. In the playground, groupthink can appear when we see common bullying behaviour that is being addressed on an almost daily basis. Students often become part of this hurtful cycle when they take a less active role as spectator at recess. The spectators may not be bullies themselves, and they may have been bullied in the past, and have chosen taken on a role that Janis talked about in his paper when he discussed the passive aspects of groupthink . The element of pressure is present since the incident may see escalation as the bully starts with verbal aggression but soon turns to physical aggression. The spectators exhibit a degree of self-censorship in the way they choose not to change the direction the incident may be taking. They choose not to alert the playground supervisor and instead may even help to cheer the bully on. During this bullying incident, the spectators may even begin to feel that the bully is justified in behaving in this fashion. The bully begins to feel, with all the support she/he is experiencing, that she/he is invulnerable and even a supervisor might see them as justified. In the business environment, groupthink develops in part because managers, as human beings, generally tend to be more comfortable and think more highly of, and thus tend to hire, underlings with similar traits ("the similar to me effect") . Additionally, in...