Alexander the great
...he subjects started to call him their king before he even took the throne. In 337 BC, Philip declared war on Persia with the support of Greece. In the spring of 336 BC, Philip sent Attalus and Parmenion with the army of 10,000 men into Asia Minor to begin the liberation of Greek coastal cities. On his way to the theater at Ege, the ancient capital of Macedonia, Philip was assassinated by his officer, Pausanias, during the celebration of his daughter's wedding to Olympias' brother, Alexander of Epirus, in July 336. Alexander was immediately presented to the army as the new King of Macedon. Philip's last wife, Cleopatra, had an uncle and guardian, Attalus, who had been sent to Asia to share command of the forces with Parmenion. Attalus became very popular within the army. Alexander at once executed all those who were alleged to be behind Philip's murder along with all possible rivals and everyone who was opposed to him. Attalus still remained a rival to the throne, even though he was loyal to Philip. Alexander was determined to get rid of Attalus discreetly. He chose Hecataeus from Cardia to capture or kill Attalus. He was sent off to Asia with a number of soldiers under orders to bring back Attalus because he was accused of high treason. If they couldn’t bring him back alive they were to assassinate him. Alexander then marched south and at an assembly of the Greek League at Corinth, was confirmed as “strategos autocrator”, (the supreme commander of the Hellenes against the barbarians). The Greek states were growing restless of the Macedonian domination. In the meantime a rumor of Alexander's death in Illyria had caused a revolt by the Thebans. By a forced march, Alexander took the Thebans completely by surprise, and in a few days the city, which a generation before had won the headship of Greece, was taken. In only 14 days Alexander marched 236.12 miles from Pelion, in Illyria, to Thebes. When the Thebans refused to surrender, Alexander had no mercy on them. The city was wiped out of existence. In the spring of 334, Alexander crossed the Dardanelles, (Hellespont), with an army of 30,000 men into Asia. The place of concentration was Arisbe on the Hellespont, leaving Antipater, the general and friend of his father, as his deputy in Europe with over 13,000 troops. Alexander himself commanded about 35,000. Alexander's second in command was Parmenio, who had secured a foothold in Asia Minor during Philip's lifetime. Many of his family and supporters were fixed in responsible positions. Explorers, engineers, architects, scientists, court officials and historians accompanied the army. To meet the invader, the Persians had an army in Asia Minor waiting that was larger than Alexander's. Strategic considerations were cancelled by the Persian barons' code of chivalry, and Alexander found them waiting for him on the banks of the Granicus River. The Persian plan to tempt Alexander across the river and kill him in the melee almost succeeded, but the Persian line broke, and Alexander's victory was complete. This victory opened western Asia Minor to the Macedonians, and most cities opened their gates. Alexander could now accomplish the first part of the task belonging to him as supreme commander of the Hellenes, which was the liberation of the Greek city-states of Asia Minor. Alexander conquered the western part of Asia Minor in winter 334-333. He came head to head with King Darius during the Battle of Issus on the northeast Mediterranean coast. Although Alexander was advancing south, he was surprised to find Darius approaching from his north. He fought Darius’s army near the town of Issus. Both sides were surprised to see each other. Darius fled north. He didn’t follow after Darius even though their camp fell into Alexander’s hands. Alexander was outnumbered ten to one. Even so, he held back a reserve force, for the first time in the military history. In 332 BC, Alexander marched south from Issus into Syria and Phoenicia. In reply to a letter from Darius offering peace, Alexander replied with resolve, demanding unconditional surrender to himself as Lord of Asia. After taking Byblos and Sidon, he met serious resistance at Tyre, where he was refused entry into the island city. The Tyrians walled themselves inside their island fortress. Alexander could not leave them to attack his rear and he could not attack by sea so he decided to build a land bridge, which still exists. He succeeded finally only after seven months, not on land but in a very brutal naval battle. During the siege of Tyre, Darius opened negotiations to his surrender. He even offered a division of his empire. He wanted to pay ransom of 10,000 talents for his family and give up all his land west of the Euphrates. Alexander refused the bargain. Alexander's general, Parmenio advised him to accept. "I would accept, were I Alexander." Parmenio said; "I too, were I Parmenio!" was Alexander's famous response. In November 332 he reached Egypt, and the Egyptians welcomed him as their liberator. He founded the city of Alexandria near the western arm of the Nile. From Alexandria, he marched along the coast to Paraetonium and from there inland, to visit the renowned oracle of Amon at Siwah. The oracle proclaimed Alexander the son of Amon (Zeus). It changed his life forever. Alexander, with his fastest troops, chased Darius for 12 days and nights and passed over 497 miles. Meanwhile Darius’s troops were reduced to 6000 men on foot and 3000 men on horses. Finally, Alexander’s cousin, Bessus, captured Darius and killed him in prison. Bessus preferred Darius dead than imprisoned. If Darius had surrendered, Alexander would have left him alive. Alexander organized an imperial funeral with all honors for the last Persian emperor. In the spring of 328, Alexander crossed westward. He sent his general, Ptolemy, in pursuit of Bessus. In July, Bessus was captured, flogged, and sent to Bactria, where he was later mutilated in the Persian manner, losing his nose and ears. Several months later, he was publicly executed at Ecbatana. At the site of modern Khojent on the Jaxartes, he founded a city, Alexandria Eschate; “the last Alexandria.” It took Alexander until the autumn of 328 to crush the most rigid opponent he encountered in his campaigns. At Maracanda in the autumn of 328 BC, during the dyonisiastic feasts, Alexander murdered Cleitus, one of his most trusted commanders. That event widened the detachment between Alexander and many Macedonians. On his march towards India through Afganistan, he attacked Oxyartes. One of his splendid moves was the capture of the Sogdian Rock. At the top of the rock was Oxyartes, who felt protected because of the vertical cliffs on each side. He provoked Alexander to send up men “with wings” to take the fortress. Alexander sent up 300 experienced climbers during the night with the assurance of spectacular wealth if they succeed. The next morning, Oxyartes was shocked to see these men “with wings” waving down at him. He surrendered with no resistance. Alexander and Oxyartes became good friends. Alexander married Oxyartes’ sister, Roxanne. In spring 326, crossing the Cofen river, Alexander entered Taxila. King Taxilas equipped Alexander with elephants and troops in return for aid against his rival Porus. In June 326 BC, Alexander fought the fourth and last of his pitched battles in Asia against Porus, one of the most powerful Indian kings. Porus held the opposite bank with a potent army, including 200 elephants. Alexander's army crossed the heavily defended river in dramatic manner during a night of torrential rain. The Indians were defeated in a brutal battle, although the...