Theatre
...n impact that was to retard the growth of the dramatic arts for several centuries. The bent toward low comedy and its mass appeal -- coupled with its association with the entertainment of the arena (which involved the martyrdom of early Christians) -- almost certainly contributed to its disfavor by officials of the early Christian Church. Plays, or ludii were associated with either comedy of a coarse and scurrilous nature, or with pagan rituals and holidays. It was the latter, however, which may account for the survival of theatre through the Middle Ages. Medieval Theatre Some have written that theatre died following the fall of the Roman Empire, and its memory was kept alive only in the performances of roving bands of jongleurs: itinerant street players, jugglers, acrobats and animal trainers. However, while such troupes did help to maintain certain aspects of theatrical art, particularly that involving stock characters, the Church itself contributed to the preservation of theatre. It is ironic that the Church, which caused theatres to be outlawed as the Roman Empire declined and then fell, was one of the primary means of keeping theatre alive through the Middle Ages. This resulted from the Church's need to establish itself in the community -- a community still steeped in pagan ritual and superstition which manifested itself in seasonal festivals. The Church ultimately linked its own religious holidays with these seasonal festivals and began to use dramatic form to illustrate the stories underlying these holidays so as to reinforce their religious connotation and to better communicate the stories to an illiterate congregation. At first the parts played in these simple religious re-enactments of the nativity and adoration of the Magi were played by priests in the sanctuary of the church. However, as the repertoire of the Church grew to include the passion and crucifixion of Christ, the Church was confronted with the dilemma of how a priest should portray Herod. While division of opinion in the Church continued as to the worth of dramatic interpretations, the members of the congregation clearly enjoyed and were moved by them. The dramas continued to grow, moving out of the sanctuary and into the open air in front of the Church. Ultimately, the members of town guilds began to contribute to these dramas, which continued to grow more elaborate with time. Known as passion plays, miracle plays and morality plays, they continued their close connection with the Church and church holidays, but began to introduce elements of stock characters that were more contemporary in nature. With the growth of towns and the introduction of stable governments in Europe, the stage was set for the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Counter-Reformation and the secularization of theatre as it emerged from the influence of the Medieval Church. Renaissance and Reformation During the 15th and 16th Centuries, European Society was influenced by the Renaissance -- a "rebirth" or rediscovery of the classical worlds of Rome and Greece -- and by a movement toward nationalism -- the building of coherent nation-states such as England, France and Spain (with Germany and Italy following later). The impact of these changes on the theatre went beyond mere secularization of an artform that had been dominated for centuries by the Church. The Renaissance, while having a major impact on the other arts, had less influence on theatre in England than in Italy, where classic Roman plays were revived for performance. Of greater impact was the Protestant Reformation and the movement toward nationalism which accompanied the Reformation. The rediscovery of the classics did influence the development of the stage -- first in Italy, then in France and England and the rest of Europe. It was in Italy that the first steps were taken toward the development of the proscenium, or "picture frame", stage with which we are so familiar today. In the England of the 15th and 16th Centuries, however, the proscenium stage was still in the future. The stages on which the works of a growing body of "play-makers" were performed evolved from the use of the enclosed courtyards of inns to stage performances. These "apron stages" were surrounded by galleries and were therefore "open" stages. Indeed, they were so "open" that members of the audience not only sat in the galleries surrounding the stage on three sides, and in the groundspace around the elevated stage, but on the stage itself. The emphasis was on dialogue as opposed to blocking or action, and the plays still had a moralistic tone. The themes of religious virtue were replaced by those of loyalty to government or to a stable society. The term "play-maker" refers to the fact that the emphasis was on the performers. Troupes or companies of actors developed a repertory of plays for performance. These companies were still guild-like in their organization, with a group of owner-actors, journeymen and hirelings. The plays that were performed were based on simple plots or previous works, and a writer "made" a play more as a technical than a truly creative process. The Protestant Reformation and the break of England from the Catholic Church during the reign of Henry VIII influenced a change in this pattern. England in the 16th Century moved back and forth from Catholicism to Protestantism, back to Catholicism during the reign of Mary, and back again to Protestantism with the accession of Elizabeth I. For intellectuals, including those who "made" plays based on the works of the classic world, the choice between revival of Latin works (associated with the Church in Rome) or Greek works (associated more with Protestantism in the England of the time), could literally be a choice between life and death as a heretic. It's no wonder that playwrights began to avoid a revival of the classics in favor of original, secular works of a general, non-political and non-religious nature. Theatre companies were still somewhat beyond the pale of normal society during this time. Fear of plague that might be carried by the traveling companies, as well as the possibility of civil unrest that might be occasioned by patrons who had to much to drink, made civil authorities sometimes ban the performance of plays and even refuse entry into a city or town by the company. Theatres were also associated, in the minds of merchants, with temptation for idle apprentices to while away their time watching entertainment instead of working. In the view of the wives of play-goers, theatres were associated with the women of ill-repute who frequented the areas surrounding the play-houses and public inns where performances took place. Ultimately, these concerns led to the licensing of official companies by the throne, and the domination of theatre by the state. Elizabethan Theatre and Shakespeare It was in this world that William Shakespeare (1564-1616) wrote and acted in his plays in the late 16th and early 17th Centuries. Elizabethan and Jacobean theatre produced a number of notable playwrights, including Christopher Marlowe and Ben Jonson; but Shakespeare towers above them. We won't enter the controversy concerning the "authorship" question. (Well, maybe we will, we take it on faith that Shakespeare wrote the plays attributed to him). Shakespeare had the good fortune to be a share-holder in the companies he was associated with, earning him income as a maker of plays, an actor and an investor. Born in Stratford-upon-Avon, he wrote plays that are timeless for their understanding of human nature and character. He was a member of several companies including the Lord Chamberlain's and King James I's own company, and was also a part owner of the Globe and Blackfriars playhouses. At this time, the plays written and performed in England were still presented in open-air theatres such as that displayed at the top of this page. Although Hamlet exhorts the actors in the play of that name to be natural in their performance, this would not be "natural" acting in the way that term is understood today. Shakespeare and his contemporaries did encourage a more natural style of speaking, as opposed to the declamatory demagogueing then practiced by some, but was not likely an advocate of the type of realism and natural character portrayal that we see in today's theatres. Space doesn't allow us to do justice the comedies, histories, tragedies and poetry of Shakespeare -- for that you might want to try a site such as The Complete Works of Shakepeare -- suffice it to say that, for sheer beauty of language, combined with eternal themes of humanity, Shakespeare represents the verie height. The Republic and The Restoration In 1642, six years before the execution of Charles I, Parliament closed the theatres in England and, until the Restoration of Charles II to the throne in 1660, we have little of theatre in that country. However, it was during this time that the influence of French theatre, and through it, Italian notions of theatre architecture, was experienced by English actors and royalists in exile. Theatre in France, and subsequently in England, was beginning to focus more on the mechanics of scenery and spectacle. The plays themselves were often masques in which costume, dance and clever scenery and scene changes were more emphasized than acting and plot. Louis XIV, the "Sun-King" appeared as himself in the Ballet Nuit. Theatres began to display the proscenium style of architecture, although the forestage remained the principal place where the acting took place, and the area behind the proscenium was reserved for the display of scenery changes which were slid into view by means of panels on tracks. It was also during this time, when theatre was designed specifically for the royal pleasure, that theatres began to be roofed in. Theatre was also influenced by two French playwrights, Jean Racine (1639-1699) and Molière (1622-1673). Molière (born Jean-Baptiste Poquelin) was the author of some of the best comedies in European history, including Tartuffe, Le Misanthrope, Le Femmes savantes and Le Malade imaginaire. Racine was as great a tragedian as Molière was a playwright of comedies, writing Bajazet, Mithridate, Iphigénie and Phèdre. Both playwrights had an influence in turning theatre away from cla...