parent participatiom
...xperiences that boost their sense of self-esteem and validate the acceptability of their feelings. This can be particularly important for adolescents, who may feel that few persons understand (or care about) their feelings „h In a family where emotional and other types of support are available, adolescents have functions available to them that are useful for coping with challenges and transitions. When things go wrong with friends, schools or other parts of life, a teen has the knowledge that family members are available and will help out through listening, helping to deal with negative emotions and provide useful advice „h It is believed that a supportive family environment also helps adolescents to be integrated in the community. Parents may provide information about relevant resources in the community, may themselves know persons who are active in the community and provide introductions and may provide instrumental functions that are useful for such purposes (eg. providing transport) „h A family with good support and communication skills also models some very important attitudes and expectations. The youth learns an optimistic approach to adversity, observes an active, rather than helpless approach to problems, and participates in interpersonal discussions that show that differences can be accepted and resolved. This would help children to develop attitudes that they can cope with problems and that both instrumental and emotional problems are amenable to resolution without acting out, blaming and criticizing, or attacking other people. (Wills et al, 1969) Small and Eastman describe a supportive family environment as one which offers warmth; demandingness; balance of power; positive role modelling and; conflict resolution¡¨. (Small and Eastman, 1991). Berkowitz and Grych describe these competancies: „h ¡§Warmth¡¨ which is described in a number of ways such as ¡§Warm and responsive parenting¡¨ or ¡§Nurturing and support¡¨. It refers to communicating the idea that the child is valuable and worthy of love. „h ¡§Demandingness¡¨ refers to 3 major factors: „h setting high but reasonable goals for children „h providing the support necessary to help children attain these goals „h monitoring whether or not children meet their expectations „h ¡§Balance of power¡¨ can also be described as ¡§Democratic Family decision-making and Discussion¡¨. This approach is a ¡§fairness approach¡¨ which requires parents to ¡§respect kids by considering their point of view. It teaches kids to reason morally ¡V to think of others¡¦ needs as well as their own ¡K It also gives kids necessary practice in the skills of conflict resolution¡¨. „h ¡§Positive role modelling¡¨ is about teaching by example; ¡§Teaching kids respect by respecting them is certainly one way to teach by example ¡K But teaching by example goes beyond how we treat our children. It has to do with how we treat and talk about others outside the family ¡V relatives, friends, strangers. It has to do with how we lead our lives¡¨. „h Conflict resolution involves developing and using good family problem solving strategies * Rayner and Montague (1999) report these critical components of the protective parent-child relationship: 1. Parental attitudes characterized by loving, caring feelings towards the child and an appreciation of their abilities 2. Parental involvement with the child, including parent participation both directly in activities with the child and in relevant areas of their life such as school. Such involvement has been shown to relate positively to older children¡¦s self-esteem, internal locus of control, school adjustment and achievement and to greater responsibility-taking ¡K 3. Parental guidance which sets age-appropriate rules and limits, firmly but not harshly, consistent discipline and rule-enforcement, encouraging age-appropriate independence and providing clear family routines and structures. The Growing Up In Australia report identifies a range of key factors that contribute to a supportive family environment: ƒæ At least one parent frequently provides the adolescent child with a wide range of care giving practices. ƒæ Family members get along well and can rely on each other in times of crises. ƒæ Adolescents prefer parents to use non intrusive methods of supporting them in times of trouble. ƒæ Australian parents know their adolescent child¡¦s friends and get along with them. ƒæ While adolescence may be a time of separating from parents and turning towards peers, it appears that adolescent adjustment is strongly influenced by how well parents and the adolescent friends get along. ƒæ Fathers equally with mothers play a key role in their adolescent child¡¦s adjustment. This highlights the need for greater priority to be given to the promotion of positive fathering. The knowledge and skills that parents have in rearing their children comprise another important human capital resource. These skills have been measured in many studies by asking parents and/or young people to assess parenting practices and skills. Some of the most important skills include monitoring and supervision, setting rules and limits, positive role modelling of communication skills, problem solving and decision making skills, and providing engaging age appropriate activities. Knowing where children are, who they are with, and what they are doing is important information for positively managing and monitoring their behaviour. Parents, adolescents and professionals were asked (Growing Up in Australia, 1999) what advice they would give parents if they wanted to have a positive relationship with their adolescent child: What parents said What adolescents said What professionals/service providers said Listen Love them for who they are Show that you care Give affection Model the behaviour you expect of them Do things together Give advice but don¡¦t force it on the adolescent Listen Trust Be more understanding Be open to talk rather than pushing ideas Let you make mistakes Spend time with you Show they care Parents should understand that people mature¡K. Adolescence is a time to do things on different level¡K to be a child and an adult Listen Communicate with the adolescent Understand the adolescent¡¦s feelings and respond to the feelings without trying to control the young person Set limits but be able to negotiate using positive concern Hold a positive view of the young person Recognise the need for rebellion is a need for difference, rather than seeing it as a personal attack on the parents Adolescents had this advice for themselves: ƒæ Communicate with your parents ƒæ Listen to your parents ƒæ Be understanding of your parents needs ƒæ Try to see their side of the story. A series of focus groups with Victorian youth asked about the most effective ways of communicating with their parents. Most believed parents were communicating most effectively when they speak in an equal, calm, relaxed and non-confronting manner. They believed parents and teachers should talk to young people in the same way they communicate with their friends. (Mind Of Youth, 1997) Family risk factors. ¡§A considerable body of evidence prioritises the risk in the family environment and includes: „h parental status, such as criminality or psychopathology, the unemployment of the head of the household (associated with poverty and social isolation); parental (particularly maternal) alcohol or drug abuse *(Conger et al. 1994); maternal psychiatric disorder or a history of mental illness *(Grunebaum and Cohler 1982) „h family size (especially large families) and close spacing between children (Werner 1986, 1989, 1993) „h particularly stressful family events, including parental bereavement, especially of the same-sex parent (Clark, Pynoos and Goebel 1994). This is associated with parental responses to the illness preceding the death, and the surviving parent¡¦s own grief. the major harm is thought to flow less from grief or loss, as such, than from the resulting family disruption (see below) „h severe marital discord and divorce (Jenkins and Smith 1990). research indicates that the loss of a parent through divorce may be more serious a long term risk than the death of a parent *(Kendler et al 1992), as is any loss or abandonment by parents (other than by death) or primary care givers without adequate replacement by consistent caring adults „h parenting style, for example, hostile and rejecting parental behaviour, harsh, inconsistent discipline (Conger at al 1994), an oppressive upbringing, physical abuse, indifference, and unjust restrictions and sanctions (Pulkkinnen 1992) and punitive parenting *(Shaw and Scott 1991), together with a range of other parenting lacks well-documented elsewhere „h early single parenthood of the mother „h parental violence, including spousal abuse. This appears to have a greater effect on young children than older children. It is hypothesized that younger children may not be able to come to terms with it intellectually „h neglect, physical or sexual abuse of the child (which may lead to aggressive behaviour, the mediating factor being the child¡¦s social cognition) „h family conflict, with low emotional cohesion and inadequate problem-solving or coping skills (Rayner & Montague: Resilient Children & Young People, 1999) Participation of young people in the post-compulsory years of schooling. A sense of belonging or connectedness to school features prominently in the literature on the well-being of young people. Catalano explains that belonging requires opportunities to belong, the skills to take advantage of opportunities, and recognition for effort. The task of socializing (children and young people) is shared between parents, teachers, authority figures, peers and an increasingly wide circle of people. Post-compulsory schooling is defined as ¡¥comprising years 10, 11 and 12 (Roussel & Murphy, 2000). In Australia, teenagers are required to attend secondary school until a particular age (generally 15 years), rather than a particular year level. With early school leavers generally reaching the legal age to leave school during year 10, the completion of years 10, 11 or 12 is not considered compulsory. Participation rates for both males and females in Australia have increased approximately 15% between 1980 and 1997. The most recent figures indicate roughly half of all 15 to 19 year olds are participating in secondary schooling. Participation rates are consistently higher for females than males in each year. Factors that influence participation in post-compulsory schooling occur on the supply and demand side. In other words, the types of schooling offered and the quantity of schooling offered is the supply side. The Commonwealth report ¡¥Participation in Post-compulsory schooling¡¦ argues that since public education is low cost and available to all, supply side factors are relatively insignificant. The same report examines the empirical literature with a focus on factors that influence the demand for schooling. On the demand side a range of influences affect the needs and preferences of young people. The most significant are: ƒæ the number of employment opportunities available to young people. As these increase, the participation rates of young people in schooling decrease. ƒæ the availability of apprenticeships, even if empirically these have been more significant for boys than girls. ƒæ the availability of an unemployment benefit, and its relationship to education income support allowances. ƒæ the higher a family income, the more likely siblings are to participate in post-compulsory schooling. The rate of return from participating in post-compulsory schooling, junior wage rates and the availability of part time work, while all appearing to have a logical impact on participation rates in post-compulsory schooling, are not sustained by an examination of the empirical literature. Other factors mentioned but without empirical evidence to support them, perhaps due to collection difficulties are: ƒæ Academic achievement. ƒæ Perceived or actual cognitive ability ƒæ Opportunity to devote time to learning. Increased participation in schooling is a positive development to the extent that improved participation rates reflect improved connectedness to schooling by young people. However, the above-mentioned report argues that improved participation rates in post compulsory schooling have more to do with socio-economic considerations than improved conditions at school. In this sense, the challenge for schools is to provide meaning and create a sense of belonging for those students who in different social and economic circumstances would have chosen employment. What are the principles that guide parent and school ¡¥best-practice¡¦ partnerships in the post compulsory years of schooling? Caplan (et al, 1997) concludes after reviewing the literature that while little evidence support any particular approach to parent involvement, there is endorsement for two main approaches: ƒæ Encouraging parent to pursue at-home behaviours that encourage learning and indicate a value for schooling ƒæ Conducting at-school activities that support the teacher-parent relationship. Epstein (1986) describe 5 types of parent involvement: ƒæ Provision of child¡¦s basic needs ƒæ School to home communication ƒæ Parent involvement at school ƒæ Involvement in learning at home ƒæ Involvement in governance and advocacy. Davies (1991) advocates for three common goals for parent involvement: ƒæ Providing success for students ƒæ Serving the needs of students ƒæ Sharing responsibility for the education of students. While health and well-being might not be a common goal for parent involvement programs in the post compulsory years of schooling, the body of opinion presented in this review would support its addition to the above three goals (Rayner & Montague, 1999, Epstein, 1986, Resnick, 1970, Frydenberg, 1999 etc) As discussed, families are crucial to the success and well-being of young people in the post-compulsory years of schooling. Clark (1991) found that academically resilient students had strong support from friends, teachers and family. Schools and parents might also assist young people by providing opportunities to form diverse friendships, particularly for young people who belong to marginalized groups (Winfield, 2002). Braddock (et al, 1991) provides strategies for developing resilience in young people including increasing parent and community involvement in schools. Parent involvement in schooling (Henderson and Berla, 1994, Epstein, 1986) improves the performance at school and attitudes to school by students. Epstein (1983) found that parents who involve themselves in schools are more supportive of their children and their children¡¦s teachers. She also found (1986) overall improvements in academic achievement, attitudes toward school, homework habits, and parent teacher relationships for students whose teachers involved parents consistently. Rumberger (et al, 1990) found a correlation between parent involvement and student attendance at school. Davis (2000) reports the benefits for students whose parents are actively involved in their school to be; improved academic achievement; better attendance; homework completed; fewer special education placements; more positive attiudes and behaviours; high graduation rates; and greater enrollment in post-secondary education. Henderson (1987) argues that successful parent involvement programs are built on the following assumptions: ƒæ The primary educational environment comes from the family ƒæ Parent involvement in a child¡¦s education is a major factor in improving school effectiveness, the quality of education, and a child¡¦s academic success ƒæ The benefits of parent involvement are not confined to pre-school, but extend through secondary school ƒæ Low-income and minority children have the most to gain when schools involve parents. Across several studies of families with varying income and ethnic backgrounds, the presence of three factors in homes was strongly associated with student achievement: strong, consistent values about the importance of education, willingness to help their children and intervene at school, and the ability to become involved (Mitrsomwang and Hawley, 1993). Standards for Parent and Family Involvement Programs have been developed by education Task Forces in Omaha, USA. These standards emphasise that effective parent education needs to take a strategic approach to parent education, rather than relying on one type of training program, or a one off event. The ¡§Quality indicators of Successful Programs¡¨ within the Parenting Standard emphasises the importance of: „h positive relationships „h linking parents to support services „h using a range of strategies to communicate with all families „h being sensitive to cultural diversity „h providing an accessible resource centre for parents „h respecting and understanding the primary role of the family in educating and rearing children „h establishing mutual respect by using collaborative strategies „h focusing on the needs of children and their parents „h allowing time for open ended discussions „h making programs responsive to local needs (PIPIE Net article) Williams and Chavkin report seven elements essential to parent involvement programs: ƒæ Supporting policy ƒæ Administrative support ƒæ Training for staff and parents ƒæ Partnership approach to decision making ƒæ Frequent communication between school and parents ƒæ Resource sharing with other programs ƒæ Periodic evaluations Other success factors from the literature for parent involvement programs include; communication (Ames, 1995); encouragement from administration (Rich, 1993, Epstein, 1986); involvement in planning and decision making (Foster, 1995); and school contracts about student behaviours (Walberg et al, 1980). Another implied success factor is the requirement for teachers; to be positive toward parent involvement; to be aware of the benefits for themselves and their students, as well as the parents; and to be the pro-active partner to ensure the on-going success of parent involvement initiatives. Frydenberg (1999) agrees with the latter when she argues that, ¡¥Partnerships depend on the degree to which the school reaches out to families using these well-supported principles of developing partnerships in general and partnerships with at-risk families in particular. She suggests schools take care to use: ƒæ non-blaming communication where blame is not attributed to the family or school because there is not a single cause for the presenting concern; ƒæ a non-deficit approach where assets and strengths of individuals are emphasized ƒæ the importance of empowerment where families are actually involved in decision making and choices for their personal lives; and ƒæ an ecological approach where there is recognition of the reciprocal influence on the family and school environments (Liontos 1992) Bellhouse and Johnston (2001) identified the following critical success factors for implementing programs: ƒæ Provide adequate training and preparation ƒæ Gain support of key stakeholders ƒæ Form an organising group, including parents ƒæ Undertake a needs analysis ƒæ Have clear aims ƒæ Clarify target group ƒæ Form mutually beneficial partnerships ƒæ Use interactive activities and strategies ƒæ Involve students ƒæ Link to broader strategies Frydenberg (1999) suggests ways of involving parents might include: 1. establishing a routine communication system between home an school, such as a voice-mail box so parents can call to get regular updates on school events and homework assignments; 2. calling parents or care-takers of high risk students on a regular basis (eg monthly) not just when there are problems or a crisis; 3. writing notes that are free of educational jargon to parents or care-takers to let them know what is happening at school; 4. making home visits to talk about the student¡¦s progress, if no other means of communication is available or effective; 5. inviting parents to be partners, especially to solve school-based concerns that require home and school support, such as attendance and homework; 6. finding out whether parents want suggestions, resources, or support for helping with student learning at home or constructive use of student time outside of school (Clark 1990); and 7. working with other school staff and community resources to offer parent support groups or workshops on topics identified by families as important. Davies (2000) makes the point that parent involvement approaches need to change over time to accommodate multiple teachers and increased independence. Other barriers in the post compulsory years of schooling may include; increased distances to travel to school; greater complexity of organizational and communication structures; and less communication between young people and their parents. Fuller (1999) identifies two distinct phases in the post-compulsory years of schooling, those being middle and late adolescence. Middle adolescence is the peak time of onset for substance abuse, conduct disorder, eating disorders and depression. He notes in a summary of considerations: Common Concerns Individuation, family battles, social success- being cool, finding a niche, sex, drugs, gangs Preventive Measures Eating, diet, body shape Adult mentoring, school connectedness, Allocate specific staff to students at risk Increase self-responsibility and communal policy making, Take schools into the community Curriculum Analysis / discussions of relationships, getting dropped, sexuality ( in the third person) Harm minimisation programs, Conflict Resolution and gang prevention Gender issues, Role models, Lower expectations of influence via school Wilderness training/ Peer culture Academic Use work experience and physical activity creatively Goal setting on an individual basis He suggests that in the last term of Year 10 students could spend time developing interpersonal problem solving skills, to augment the connections and belonging developed in earlier years. Study skills, time management and help seeking are other topics that need to be covered in preparing students for the senior years. Developing strategies to actively engage students in projects that absorb them and reward them for personal effort is linked with career success ( Csikzentmihalyi & Schneider, 2000). Individual mentoring of students throughout Year 11 and 12 is invaluable. He lists the following summary of considerations for the senior years of secondary school: Common Concerns Failing, freedom, finances, sexuality, depression Preventive Measures Adult support/ individual mentoring /Positions of responsibility/ maturity training Coping mechanisms that lessen self-blame Peer support programs/ Keep parents involved Curriculum Study skills Stress management, Role models, Project and time management, Relationship issues- How to be cool and smart There's more to life than Year 12 / Disputing fatalistic & defeatist thinking Academic Role models, self-determining, Goal setting- make commitments and create an audience for them The focus of this review has been on student well-being, assuming that this is a pre-requisite to success at school. The qualities and skills that are compatible with the development of resilience concur with many of those factors that are compatible with successful schooling. Rutter (1990, 1993) suggests four factors that enhance resilience: 1. The reduction of the risk impact either by virtue of the effects on the riskiness itself or through alteration of exposure to, or involvement in, the risk 2. The reduction of negative chain reactions stemming from the risk encounter 3. The establishment and maintenance of self-esteem and self-efficacy through the availability of secure and supported personal relationships or successes in task accomplishments; and 4. The opening up of opportunities of a positive kind. Rayner and Montague (1999) suggest, ¡¥that resilience is enhanced if professionals, parents, teachers, policy-makers and service-providers focus on tackling the risks, cutting their compounding effects, fostering secure relationships with children, and ensuring they have a range of opportunities to succeed. These opportunities may change the way the child looks at their circumstances, giving them reason to hope.¡¦ What are ¡¥best practice¡¦ models and strategies of parent education programs? A growing body of evidence indicates the positive advantages of parent education. A recent report by the Department of Human Services (2002) found encouraging evaluations of parent programs targeted at parents of high risk groups, and substantial evidence to support the implementation of universal parenting education programs. Universal programs include: community change initiatives; parent training programs and secondary school parent training groups. Improving parent-adolescent communication Many parent programs highlight the importance of improving communication between adolescents and their parents on issues such as drug use. The content of these programs often emphasises skills such as: „h active listening „h being available „h being positive „h giving clear messages „h modelling good behaviour In Adolescent Substance Abuse, Wodarski and Feit describe the communication skills element of their parent education program. The key skills developed in this program are: „h Keeping the Lines of Communication Open: this involves ¡§Don¡¦t make any subjects off limits, Listen ¡¥between the lines¡¦ and Get the conversation moving¡¨. „h Nonverbal Communication: this involves eye contact, tone of voice, body posture and facial expressions „h Ineffective Verbal Communication: this involves explaining ¡§12 Roadblocks to effective communication „h Expressing Affection/Giving Praise and Compliments; this involves showing physical and verbal affection and approval „h Negotiating and Reaching Agreements Before terminating Discussion: this involves using a ¡§No-lose¡¨ method of resolving conflicts Lingren, in High Risk Youth , defines the relationship between adolescence and high risk behaviours, such as drug misuse. His program helps parents and adolescents to identify external and internal assets and suggests parent strategies for promoting and increasing those assets. Recommended helping strategies, including several to improve parent-adolescent communication are: „h Listen to your teens (designated as ¡§The most important thing parents can do for their adolescents¡¦) „h Act on teachable moments „h Talk about values and ethical behaviour „h Focus on what is important „h Be willing to be unpopular „h Avoid arguing „h Be respectful „h Help teens learn from experience „h Encourage participation in activities in which teens can develop competence and which they enjoy The PACE program, described in GUIA, was recently developed in Australia and aims to: „h Build confidence of parents ¡V it aims to avoid making parents feel guilty „h Build the skill base and knowledge of parents The core of the PACE program is to improve parent communication skills, in particular, listening skills as ¡§the most useful skill for parents¡¨. The skills of conflict resolution and assertion are addressed in the program too. PACE also encourages parents to develop themselves. The ten sessions in the program are: 1. Setting the scene 2. Listening 3. Assertion 4. Adolescent development 5. Family 6. values: sexuality, drugs & lifestyles 7. Conflict resolution 8. Work & study 9. hope: issues of suicide 10. reflections and future plans The PACE program has been evaluated by (Toumborou et al, 1999) and was found to make significant changes in positive family functioning for the participants. Student participation and parent involvement Student participation is a promising strategy that can be utilized to improve the effectiveness of parent education programs. The AYF describes the general benefits of youth participation as: „h The development of young people¡¦s skills, knowledge, confidence and awareness „h The opportunity for young people to exercise their rights in society „h The development of adult awareness of young people¡¦s contribution and viewpoint „h An increase in young people¡¦s connection and ownership and adult life and acknowledgement of their value when they participate in public activities „h Development of healthy and content people who have satisfying and meaningful relationships and connections „h Increased satisfaction and fulfillment of needs when young people are involved in services and education settings „h The use of untapped community resources, such as knowledge of youth issues viewpoint and culture, and high levels of energy and commitment The Foundation for Young Australians outlines several reasons for schools to adopt student participation, including: „h Policies and programs that include young people in their design and delivery are more likely to be efficient and effective „h It makes sure that schools¡¦ actions, policies, programs and processes are relevant and presented most effectively „h It is the training required for young people to become active citizens in our society „h Youth participation can make your school more responsive, understanding and considerate of the young people with whom you are working „h Young people can bring new perspectives, influencing outcomes in new and unexpected ways „h Active and productive youth involvement can challenge negative stereotypes of young people within the community „h It allows the participation of marginalized young people who are rarely involved in decision-making „h It encourages participation in wider society. „h It can tap into young people¡¦s expertise in their own social and cultural conditions „h It can assist young people to develop skills, confidence and awareness so that they can tackle initiatives on their own To effectively adopt a model of youth/student participation, schools need to be aware of the requirements and methods inherent in such a model. The major requirement is ¡§the general commitment of the school and its adult workers to the philosophy and implementation of youth participation¡¨, which includes the belief that young people have a lot to offer, those involved can be supported as they learn and there is teacher time and money to do it. Key methods for schools adopting youth participation include shared decision-making, youth run projects and activities, young people helping young people, young people informing service, program and policy development and young people developing internal and external resources. Student participation is seen as an important approach to use in school drug education. In the Summary of Critical Elements in Effective School-based drug Education, Ballard et al cite ¡§Collaborative Approaches¡¨ as a theme, where ¡§Mechanisms should be developed to involve students. parents and the wider community in school-based drug education¡¨. Another critical component cited by Dusenbury and Falco in this Summary is ¡§Interactive teaching techniques ¡K such as role play, group discussion and joint activities¡¦ to ¡§promote active involvement in the learning process¡¨. The Resilience Model A recent evaluation of a Department of Education, Employment and Training, Victoria initiative implementing a series of one-off parent training events, identified three distinct models; information, consultation and resilience. Each may be utilized depending on the aims of a school. However, the resilience model created a great deal of enthusiasm among the participants, and in many instances was an effective way of making strategic links to other parent and student supports. (Bellhouse and Johnston, 2001) report, ¡¥In the trial events, organising groups attempted to build resilience by building communication skills. One event used the planning stage to enhance communication between a network of schools, community organisations and local political figures. It was a key strategy toward building partnerships, and a common language. In this sense, the bringing together of key stake holders in the planning stage was viewed as a key outcome in itself. Content may be created through the activities, or it may be provided by speakers, and then followed by activities that are aimed at developing skills using the content. One trial event aimed at building resilience during transition since this was identified as a key strategy in the prevention of drug use. Year ten students staged a dramatic representation through a set of vignettes about issues for young people in transition from primary to secondary school. The audience was invited to participate in seeking solutions and positive outcomes. The vignette was then performed again incorporating the audience¡¦s suggestions. Using student performers is a way of developing skills, as long as the training is adequate. In the trial schools, adequate resourcing was provided for this to be a highly effective strategy. Students not only had positive experiences in terms of skill development, but they also had opportunities for experiencing a sense of belonging and enhanced connectedness to their schools, as well being empowered to be active participants in a process about responding to a social issue. The skills were not only limited to communication. The student facilitators also appeared to develop team work and decision making skills. Many trial schools attempted to engage students in ways appropriate to other levels of skill. For instance, catering students provided ¡¥mocktails¡¦ and other refreshments at some events. These additions to the ¡¥main¡¦ event broaden the scope of the benefits, and once again, the extent of engagement and connectedness to school. Audiences responded with overwhelming support to student facilitators, as well as to the opportunities to communicate with young people. The use of interactive activities was extremely popular among participants. The full benefit of skills development occurs when they are linked to strategies where opportunities are provided to use those skills. The previously mentioned event was followed up in the year six classrooms with discussions about transition. Students were highly motivated by the forum and expressed opinions about all students being provided with the opportunity to participate in the same sort of event. The year ten performers, will be linked with year six students as peer leaders when the younger students reach secondary school. Community change initiatives In a more recent report (Toumborou et al, 2002) finds empirical evidence to support the effectiveness of, ¡¥a growing range of community change initiatives that aim to provide training and information to all parents within a given population. Existing evidence suggests it is possible to involve parents as a component in programs aimed at addressing broader community factors that can undermine healthy youth development. Such projects typically incorporate community mobilisation activities as an adjunct to school-based health education (e.g., Perry et al., 1996). ¡¥The Urban School-Community Parent Programs to Prevent Drug Use¡¦ project, when reporting on collaborations to prevent drug abuse highlights the following, ¡¥effective school-family collaborations to prevent youth drugs use require mutual respect; an accurate understanding of the nature and concerns of community members and the local problems; and ongoing commitment of time and resources by everyone involved. It is important that the responsibilities for both decision-making and tasks be shared, and that assignments be clearly stated. Above all, families must feel confident that they can share problems with others, that confidentiality will be maintained, and that they will receive useful and sustained help and support.¡¦ Toumborou (et al, 2002) reports on Project Northland that demonstrated a delayed entry to youth alcohol associated with changes to local laws and ordinances controlling alcohol sales to minors, improved family communication relating to alcohol use, and reductions in the perception that young people drank alcohol. In another program Pentz and colleagues (Johnson et al., 1990; MacKinnon et al., 1991) reported a program combining parent training in adolescent communication with school drug education and community mobilisation including a parent organisation program for reviewing school prevention policy and skills. Rohrbach et al, (1994) reported 73% of parents participated in one or more of the program components. The program was effective at preventing escalation (recent use in 30 days) in tobacco and marijuana use, but not for alcohol.¡¦ In the same report, (Toumborou et al, 2002) also reports, cognitive behavioural parent training has been shown to have benefits in universal, selective and indicated settings (Taylor & Biglan, 1998; Sanders, 2000). The intensity of the program can be tailored to the needs of the client group, with more intensive programs being offered to higher risk categories of parents such as substance abusers. Programs use either group or individual formats and aim to enhance skills for managing stress, monitoring healthy child development, and managing problem behaviours. Mitchell et al (2001) noted that on average effect sizes tended to be large (0.86), with two thirds of participants showing some improvements in targeted behaviours for around 20 hours of parent group intervention. Behavioural family interventions are successful in enrolling around 2/3rds of those eligible, however, program compliance and maintenance of positive changes tends to more problematic among high-risk groups. Barriers to Parent Involvement in Schooling. A series of sixteen (16) focus groups were conducted across the United States with groups of parents about their involvement in schools (ERIC, undated). Those barriers to parent involvement that were identified were grouped into: ƒæ Logical constraints: time, money, scheduling, transportation, child care and work commitments. ƒæ Schools limiting involvement: school welcome involvement at fundraising events and field trips, but other forms of involvement was less welcome. ƒæ Children limiting involvement: older children don¡¦t want parents invol...