International Business Styles
...ievement motivation of an individual refers to a basic attitude toward life, namely, the willingness to commit oneself to the accomplishment of tasks considered by the person, to be worthwhile and difficult. An achievement-motivated person makes accomplishment and end in itself. Tangible rewards are not rejected, but they are not essential. Attitudes toward the Future Some of the principal differences among cultures lie in assumptions and attitudes relating to man’s ability to influence the future. For example, an assumption that people can substantially influence the future underlies much of U.S. management philosophy. Long-range planning becomes a worthwhile investment because of confidence that planning can influence what is to happen. In cultures where other attitudes prevail, management practices based on such assumptions are not likely to be effective. On the other hand, care must be taken not to overgeneralize. Despite a general view that Moslem cultures are fatalistic, Arab executives are found most amenable to planning. Patterns of Decision Making Reliance on objective analysis in decision making varies greatly among cultures. In U.S. business, decisions are supposed to be based on objective analyses of facts, and all persons who can contribute relevant information are expected to do so. Such norm leads to large collection of data and the development of impersonal decision-making techniques. In other societies, the personal judgement of a senior executive may be the accepted basis for a decision. A request that the executive explain or give the rationale for his decision would be interpreted as a lack of confidence in the executive’s judgement. In such cultures, hierarchical, emotional and mystical considerations, rather than objective analyses, may dominate. Attitudes toward Authority The dominant view of authority in a society may range from an autocratic system at one extreme to a democratic-participative system at the other extreme. In autocratic systems, managerial decisions would typically be highly centralised with little delegation of authority. At the other extreme, managerial authority would be shared with subordinates and workers and considerable decentralisation in decision making would be typical of business enterprises. It is not possible to say which forms of managerial authority along the continuum are best in terms of efficiency or in achieving other business goals. Whatever authority system prevails in a given country, the international enterprise will have to relate its managerial patterns to the expectations and tradition of local employees. Authority system is also highly relevant to marketing. In negotiating with governments, the international manager will have to know whether decision authority resides with low-level bureaucrats or must be handled at the highest levels of government bureaucracy. Expression of Disagreement Differences among societies in frankness of expression and tolerance for personal differences affect interpersonal relations. In far Eastern cultures it is traditional to value politeness over blunt truth. The Japanese business executive finds it inappropriate to say No in many situations. In dealing with an American, the Japanese may make all kinds of barely favourable noises and then maybe say: “I will think about the matter.” The Japanese has actually told the American no, but it is entirely possible that the American thinks that the answer was yes and later imagines that the Japanese was being deceptive. In many countries, if a person expresses criticisms of a policy in order to improve the quality of decision making, such statements are likely to be interpreted as personal attacks. Responsibility to Family In some countries businessmen operate as individuals independent of family. In others, some version of the extended family prevails. Strong and extended family ties can result in what has been characterised as patrimonial management. Ownership and key positions in a business enterprise are held by family members. Such patrimonial management has the advantages of encouraging teamwork, loyalty and mutual interest. The extended family has also drawbacks. Family businesses may be run like an authoritative household with little concern for consideration other than family goals. Even where the family is not dominant within an organisation, top executives in countries in which the extended family is important may expect and be expected to behave as the head of a family. Social Structure A final category of cultural elements can be grouped under the general heading of social structure. Few societies in the world assume that all individuals are equal. Instead, societies have traditional systems of ranking individuals and groups. Relative positions in the social hierarchy are based on ethnic, cultural, educational, and linguistic differences, as well as on economic position. ...