Learning and Thinking: A comparison of two orientations to learning
... understand learners’ expectations through dialogue and learners control their own learning. Thirdly, behaviourist techniques ‘manipulate’ learners into learning things that they don’t care about. These techniques are performed through predetermined learning objectives set by the experts. Humanist techniques engage the learners in an intense, personal way by drawing upon the wisdom and experiences of the learners. These techniques are based on proven successes in counselling, therapy and personal growth. Fourthly, behaviourist techniques are used to identify the desired target behaviour, that is, skill or information and then to elicit the desired learner response. Humanist techniques are concerned with the development of the whole person with much emphasis on emotional and affective dimensions of the personality with the aim of attaining self-actualisation and autonomy. In addition to the above differences discussed, table 1 below displays a further comparison of differences in beliefs and approaches between behaviourist and humanist. Table 1: Comparison of differences in beliefs and approaches between behaviourism and humanism. (Source: H. B. Long & Associates, 1994. From behaviourism to humanism: Incorporating self-direction in learning concepts into instructional design process. New ideas about self-directed learning. Norman, OK: Oklahoma Research Center for Continuing Professional and Higher Education, University of Oklahoma) Behaviourism Views to Adult Education versus Humanism Views to Adult Education Information acquisition Information processing Sensory impression Reflection Behavioural psychology Gestalt psychology Search for single events or parts Search for whole patterns Left brain hemisphere Right brain hemisphere Accumulation of knowledge Memory Acquiring knowledge Learning how to learn Learning as an end product Learning as a process Instruction broken into manageable parts Instruction as a process Rote learning Meaningful learning Stimulus-response Stimulus-human organism-response Mechanistic view Dynamic view Observable behaviour Perceptions Behavioural change Internal thoughts Programmed learning Liberal studies for adults Environment shapes learning Individual determines learning External locus of control Individual locus of control Reinforcement / operant conditioning Role of experience Task analysis Interactive needs assessment Trainer role Facilitator role Quantitative methods predominate Qualitative methods predominate Product evaluation Process evaluation Criterion / normative / goal referenced evaluation Goal free evaluation External testing Learner controlled verification Cognitive / mechanistic / psychomotor learning Affective learning Predetermination Individuals control own destiny Expert directs learning / expert models Self-directed learning Fluid intelligence Crystallised intelligence External motivation Internal motivation Fixed ends Relative ends Both the similarities and differences of these orientations have been discussed. One might ask which one is a better approach to learning? Before we decide on which approach, let us explore the advantages and disadvantages of using each approach. The advantages of behaviourist approaches can be described in the following six areas. First, behaviourism sets up objectives that are clear and unmistakable. For example, behaviourist objectives are specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and is time-bound. Second, behaviourism ensures behavioural practice, not just theory. For instance, Skinner’s stimulus-response experiment has been carefully studied and thoroughly practiced. Third, behaviourism works best for helping learners to acquire behavioural skills. This approach is most appropriate for moving from non-performance to acceptable performance. Fourth, with clear goals and objectives, behaviourism is highly specific and therefore is easily assessed and quantified through external testing and goal referenced evaluation. Fifth, behaviourism is observable, that is, you know when you have succeeded in acquiring the information or skill. This can be evaluated and quantified against objectives set. Sixth, behaviourism is used as one criterion by which to know and judge people (Zuber-Skerritt, 1992). Through observation of behaviours, one can form opinions and perceptions on others. Humanists have five areas of advantages. First, humanism draws on learners’ experiences. This approach makes learning more meaningful as learners are able to make connection of their past experiences to the new knowledge. Second, humanism, as the name suggests, treats learners as adults in a way that the learners control own destiny in the learning process and have their own locus of control. They decide what to learn, when to learn and how to learn. In short, learners become self-directed. Third, humanism adapts to diverse needs and expectations of learners. Through self-directed learning, this approach allows liberal studies for adults. Fourth, humanism develops critical thinking, judgement and creativity in learners when they engage in problem solving, discussions and debriefing sessions in the learning process. Fifth, with the humanist approach of freedom to choose the what, when and how of learning, learners takes own responsibility towards learning thus promoting initiative and self-directed learning. The behaviourist approaches do have their drawbacks. Firstly, behaviourism tends to manipulate learners into learning things that they don’t need or care about. Since learning objectives are predetermined by experts, learners may not be able to find meaning or draw from their experiences in the learning process. Secondly, behaviourism “sees man as merely another type of animal, with no essential differences from animals and with the same destructive, anti-social tendencies” (Goble, 1971, p.3-8). Behaviourism does not regard man as dynamic animal that possess real human behaviour, that is thinking. Thirdly, in behaviourism, approach of understanding a new experience through a stimulus-response approach disregard the human organism (Zuber-Skerritt, 1992). Fourthly, behaviourism is considered as being mechanistic and inappropriate to developing critical and creative thinking. This statement is confirmed by Skinner’s statement: It is true that the techniques which are emerging from experimental study of learning are not designed to ‘develop the mind’ or to further some vague ‘understanding’ of mathematical ‘relationships’. Like behaviourist approaches, the humanist approaches also have their disadvantages. Firstly, by determining the expectations of learners through their involvement in planning the objectives and lessons, trainers may not be able to meet the set expectations of the learners in the lesson plan. This would upset the learning process. Secondly, the soft, laid-back techniques of dialogue about learners’ expectations may waste time. Learners may not have the expertise to set reasonably rational expectations towards their learning. Thus, time could be wasted in discussing expectations rather than to get down to the learning process proper. Thirdly, the humanist approaches, according to Foley (1995), “has been criticised for their lack of interest in the content of education” as emphasis has been drawn towards the process. Foley (1995) also notes that “humanist approaches are also criticised for their naivety about the social and ethical outcomes of education” as a result of the lack of content of education mentioned earlier. Application of Behaviourist Approach to Work Organisation As we can see from the above exploration of the advantages and disadvantages of both orientations, one would realise that no single orientation to learning would fit perfectly, in isolation, and be applied to any aspect of training and development of adult learners. For the purpose of this essay, I will discuss the effective application of dominantly behaviourist approach to training and development in the Singapore Scout Association (SSA) where I am currently serving as a volunteer trainer. The SSA trains newly appointed scout leaders in the knowledge and skills of Scouting. The scout leaders are mainly teachers, appointed by the school principals to conduct scouting activities in their respective units or scout groups. These leaders will have to go through a series of training courses, from basic course to specialised skills training courses, to adequately equip themselves with the necessary knowledge and skills in leading a scout group. Given the assumption that these leaders do not have the knowledge and skills needed, SSA adopts the behaviourist approach. The fundamental purpose of the training programmes is to achieve the goals and objectives of training these leaders to be competent in the technical skills aspects of scouting activities, like pitching tents, rope work and campcraft, as well as the knowledge of scouting history, philosophy and methodology. The success of achieving the goals and objectives can be best observed with the application of the behaviourist approach. The whole process from the design of the training programme to the evaluation of the training process, is very much developed and controlled by the expert. This methodology, coined by Knowles (1990), is called content model. Training objectives are predetermined and the learning process is trainer centred. The trainer controls the environment and directs the learning. For example, in a session on pitching of tents, trainer models the process and later instructs the learners to imitate the process to show the response and understanding. In the meantime, trainer is able to observe behavioural change to indicate that learning has taken place. Learners, on the other hand, focus on acquiring and accumulation of knowledge and skills imparted by the trainer. At the end of the training programme, a reward, in the form of certificate, is presented to...