Social Work in a School Based Setting
...it may train the children for the life to which they look forward. Secondly, the visiting teacher interprets to the parents the demands of the school and explains the particular difficulties and needs of the child (Allen-Meares, 2000, p. 33). In 1925 Julius Oppenheimer added to the definition that the School Based Social Work 5 most important function of a school social worker “was to aid in the recognition of school administration and of school practice by supplying evidence of unfavorable conditions that underlie children’s school difficulties and by pointing out needed change (Allen-Meares, 2000, p. 33). In the 1920’s the number of school social workers increased as a result of a series of demonstrations that were aimed at the prevention of juvenile delinquency. The Commonwealth Fund of New York gave the National Committee of Visiting Teachers financial support for a countrywide demonstration and experimentation in the field of social work. These efforts place thirty school social workers in thirty different communities. When the Fund withdrew its support in 1930, 21 of the communities continued the programs. This demonstration led to the growth of the National Association of Visiting Teachers and focused its efforts on establishing professional standards and direction for its members (Allen-Meares, 2000). This development of school social workers was halted during the depression of the 1930s. The services that were provided by the visiting teachers were either abolished totally or seriously cut back in volume. As the depression worsened, federal aid was made available to families who were experiencing hard times. The visiting teachers began to change their roles from changing adverse conditions in schools and linking home, school, and community to a more specialized role which provided emotional support for troubled children (Allen-Meares, 2000). During the 1940s, social change and neighborhood conditions no longer were seen as targets of intervention; instead the profession took a clinical approach School Based Social Work 6 focusing primarily on the personality needs of the individual child. Ruth Smalley described the role of the school social worker as being a specialized form of social casework (Allen-Meares, 2000). This casework relied upon communication with the parents of the troubled students, with the intent of helping the parents understand the school’s concerns, to support the casework relationship, to help the social worker better understand the child and his behavior, and to offer the parents assistance in providing better conditions for the child (Allen-Meares, 2000). During the 1960s and 1970s there was a flurry of federal education legislation that significantly increased the federal government’s role in public education. First, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination in federally assisted programs and assisted school staff in dealing with the problems that were caused by desegregation. Second, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 authorized grants for required education for children of low income families in elementary and secondary schools. Third, the 1972 Education Amendment (Title IX) prevented sex discrimination in the admission and treatment of students by educational facilities that were receiving federal assistance. Fourth, the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973 covered students who have a disability and special needs that are not considered special education as specified in the Individuals with Disabilities Act. Fifth, the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act provided federal assistance to states that had programs for the identification, prevention, and treatment of child abuse and neglect. Sixth, the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974 provided resources to develop programs to keep elementary and School Based Social Work 7 secondary students in school. Seventh, the Education for all Handicapped Children Act established the right of all children with disabilities to a free and appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment. These changes in legislation renewed the school social worker’s focus on their responsibility to help modify school conditions and policies that had a detrimental impact on students (Dupper, 2003). In 1973, the NASW Council on Social Work in Schools met for the first time to identify issues facing school social workers; such as inflation, budget cuts, and other school personnel assume roles similar to those provided by school social workers. In 1974, the council agreed that it was necessary to develop national standards for to clarify the nature of the profession and to offer guidelines of the services to other personnel in the school setting (Allen-Meares, 2000). As the number of school social workers continued to grow in the 1980s, the NASW held a number of school social work conferences that focused on the expanded roles of the profession, new populations at risk, and how to respond to the increasing number of homeless families. With the increase in the number of state associations of school social workers, has come an active role by the state in specifying education requirements for practice in school settings. Most states now require certification which requires completion of an approved graduate social work program and special exams (Allen-Meares, 2000). In 1992 the NASW developed the School Social Work Specialist (SSWS) credential which is not yet required for state social work certification (Hare, 1998). The SSWS credential can be obtained by successfully completing at least two years of postmaster’s supervised school social work School Based Social Work 8 experience and a written exam (Flaherty et al., 1998). The primary purpose of the credential program was to set a national standard of excellence school social workers that is above the requirements of state certification. The SSWS credential was designed to enhance the recognition of school social worker’s contributions, to encourage professional development, to promote uniform credentialing standards, to ensure a consistent level of training and experience in professionals, and to promote the professional identity of school social workers as specialists in solving psychosocial problems in schools (Hare, 1998). The need for school social workers to obtain clinical credentials was impacted by the changes in health care in the 1980s and 1990s. The major influence was that Medicaid funding was being used in many school districts to support the social work services that were part of the targeted case management provisions of the Medicaid law or the early and periodic screening, diagnosis, and treatment provisions (Dupper, 2003). As managed care organizations emphasize credentialing of their service providers, they are focusing more on provider profiling as a means of ensuring the best quality, cost-effective services to the clients. Acquiring specialized qualifications will become increasingly significant for practitioners as this emphasis continues (Hare, 1998). Today, the most common intervention framework practiced by school social workers is the ecological perspective. This perspective focuses on the reciprocal interactions of the students with environmental factors. The student is seen as a inseparable part of the various social systems within which they must function. The School Based Social Work 9 school social worker must have a dual function; they must strengthen the students’ coping patterns and growth potential, while improving the quality of the environment. This ecological perspective currently used in practice allows school social workers to carry out their mission in schools; assisting students as well as targeting detrimental conditions in school, families, neighborhoods, and communities, especially those conditions that are harmful to vulnerable students (Dupper, 2003). The ecological perspective is congruent with the strengths perspective and the empowerment approach. School social workers identify and build on strengths rather than focusing on the deficits of the students. As the profession of a school social worker has continuously grown and adapted changing policies and legislations, it is important that the school social workers now embrace the idea of collaboration. In order to better serve all of the needs of a struggling family, school based health centers have been developed to offer a collaboration of services that are easily assessable to the students and their family (Fast, 2003). The central idea to the move for integrated services is the belief that systems of care, for example the school, can be improved through developing new systems in which professionals from various disciplines become partners to meet the needs of the students. Most human service systems are isolated from each other which make it difficult for them to collaborate effectively. The school system acts a central location for human services delivery because it allows the maximum access to the students and their families (Franklin & Allen-Meares, 1998). School Based Social Work 10 Each mental health discipline involved in the collaboration contributes to the development and operation of school-based mental health programs in a different way, and is essential for service delivery in school settings. Working in schools provides counselors, psychologists, social workers, nurses, and psychiatrists have an unique opportunity to address the mental health and social needs of students. In order for the collaboration to be successful it is important that traditional roles be redefined and treatment modalities must be adapted for use and evaluated for effectiveness in school settings (Flaherty, et al. 1998). School counselors originated in the early 1900s as part of the vocational guidance movement. Their primary focus was performing vocational assessments and testing students on their aptitudes, abilities, and interests and how these related to different occupations. Recently, the school counselor’s focus has shifted to a more proactive, developmental and prevention approach. Duties of a school counselor include individual counseling, group counseling, consulting with teachers and p...