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...past. However, Augustus first had several problems of the late Roman Republic to overcome in order to its restore peace, unity, and prosperity. Two of the most destructive problems facing the late Roman Republic were the instability and disunity caused by continuous civil wars. Rome's rapid expansion after the Punic Wars, resulted in socioeconomic changes that permanently divided the state. Both aristocratic and plebeian parties sought total control of Rome and tried to destroy each other. Consequently, the power of the military became supreme. Control of Rome's armies steadily shifted away from the legitimate government to the generals (Southern 29). On dismissal from military service, the legionnaires had no farms to return to, and they depended entirely on whatever land and money their generals could provide since the government was unwilling or unable to supply veterans with livelihoods (Southern 31). Thus, the generals became autonomous centers of power. The general who dominated the strongest army ruled the state. Repeated power struggles of these military strongmen ignited more civil wars that further undermined the stability and unity of the late Roman Republic. Augustus understood that control of the legions by the civil government was necessary for the establishment of peace and order throughout the Roman Empire. He sought to reorganize and institute changes in the military to assure that it would not rise again in support of some triumphant general to challenge the legitimacy of the state. Since warfare within the Empire was eliminated, the role of the legions changed. Its main objectives consisted in protecting the borders from foreign foes and pacifying conquered lands through the gradual introduction of the Roman language, law, administration, and engineering (Takacs 48). Augustus' priority was to reduce the number of the legions from 60 to 28, settling in the process more than 100,000 veterans in colonies in Italy, Africa, Asia, and Syria (Takacs 53). He standardized the length of military service, raised the troops' salary and regularized the payment of pensions to veterans, which consisted of land and money. Accordingly, Augustus reduced the old threat of soldiers giving their allegiance to wealthy generals rather than to the state. In addition, Augustus raised a new military force to act as personal bodyguards of the Emperor and to specifically protect the city of Rome from all enemies, foreign or domestic. He also created a police force for the city, which greatly reduced the crime rate and the frequency of public riots, both of which were constant problems in the late Roman Republic. Another problem plaguing the late Roman Republic was the constant revolt of the provinces because of corruption and mismanagement. Under the early Republic, the appointed provincial governors served short terms. Many of these politically appointed governors were either inexperienced or incompetent, so corruption and fiscal mismanagement were common practices. The greed of these governors was so intolerable that the populace of one province forced the imperial tax collectors to drink molten gold (Forsyth 59). Augustus reformed the provincial administrative system by creating an imperial civil service whose members came from a pool of capable administrators that he hand-picked himself. These new governors were given long terms of office in order to have ample time to implement long-term reforms (Takacs 57). He also gave the provincial inhabitants the chance to voice their grievances and the certainty that their complaints were taken seriously by Rome. In order to curb corruption, Augustus saw to it that the governors were compensated fairly for their work. He rewarded those who did well and demoted those who did poorly. Protected by the army, and administrated by the civil service, the Empire expanded economically. With freedom of travel and trade, goods circulated with no tariffs or customs duties; traders only had to pay harbor dues. Collected taxes went directly to the imperial treasury, and Augustus made sure that a certain portion of the revenues was allocated for the improvement of the provinces, and not end up in the pockets of corrupt tax collectors (Forsyth 64). Augustus overhauled the inefficient tax system by ordering a detailed census of all the provinces and instilled new taxes to boost the economy. Augustus also aimed to stop the decline of Roman morals by enacting several social reforms. The Lex Juliade maritis ordinandis prohibited celibacy and childless marriages (Southern 48). It was made mandatory for Roman citizens to get married (48). Special benefits, such as tax cuts, were established for couples with children (49). This law had the added advantage of replacing the decimated Roman population that was lost during the numerous civil wars. To handle the issue of adultery, which the Romans then practiced extensively, Augustus enacted Lex Julia de Adulteriis that made adultery a punishable crime (53). He also passed laws that restricted luxury and extravagance. The art and literature of Augustus’ reign represents the peak of Roman cultural achievement. Accordingly, “Augustus himself played an active part in supporting and encouraging the writers and artists of his day; many of their works echo the chief themes of Augustan politics: the return to peace, the importance of land and agriculture, the abandonment of an ostentatious lifestyle in favor of simplicity, and above all, the belief in Rome’s destiny as world ruler” (Zanker 67-68). Some of the greatest works of Roman sculpture commemorate Augustus and his deeds. Drawing inspiration from Etruscan and Greek art as well as Republican traditions, Roman artists of the Augustan age created a new style—a Roman form of idealism specifically grounded in the appearance of the everyday world. They enriched the art of portraiture in both official images and representations of private individuals; they recorded contemporary historical events on commemorative arches, columns, and mausoleums erected in public places; and they ultimately contributed to Roman imperial propaganda. For example, the Augustus of Primaporta demonstrates the creative assimilation of earlier sculptural traditions into a new context. In its idealization of a specific ruler and his prowess, the sculpture illustrates the use of imperial portraiture for political propaganda. Mythological imagery exalts Augustus’ position. Cupid, son of the goddess Venus, rides a dolphin next to the emperor’s right leg, a reference to the claim of the emperor’s family, the Julians, to descend from the goddess Venus through her son Aeneas (Zanker 71). Although Augustu...