Roman empire
...perfect example of a pupil who becomes greater than his master. Plato was first systematic philosopher and therefore the first to place political ideas in their full philosophical context. He made philosophical problems seem dramatic and entertaining. Like Socrates Plato firmly believed in the polis and its values. The virtues were order, harmony, and justice, and one of its main objects was to produce good people. Plato thought that polis was in accord with nature. According to Plato knowledge is episteme, science, and a body of true and unchanging wisdom open to only a few philosophers whose training, character, and intellect allow them to see reality. Plato also founded the Academy. He believed only such people were qualified to rule. Plato’s definition of justice is that each man should do only that one thing to which his nature was best suited. Plato’s solution for internal stress, class struggle, and factional divisions were moral and political reform. He also felt that the way to harmony was to destroy the cause of strife. The heart of Plato philosophy was redemption. He asks questions such as, “What is a good man, and how is he made?” Human goodness was a theme that belonged to moral philosophy, and when it dealt with the state, it became a political philosophy. Plato’s need to find a satisfactory foundation for the beleaguered polis contributed to birth of systematic philosophy. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) was a pupil of Plato who owed much to the thought of his master, but his different experience and cast of mind led him in new directions. He also studied at the academy. His research in marine biology, and biological interests played a large part in all his thoughts. Aristotle founded his own school called Lyccum. Members of school took little interest in mathematics and were concerned with gathering, ordering and analyzing all human knowledge. His studies range from subjects such as logic, physics, astronomy, biology, ethics, rhetoric, literary criticism, and politics. He also began with observation of the empirical evidence. Aristotle also introduced metaphysical principles to explain problems or to reconcile the inconsistencies. He also believed the purposes of most things were easily inferred by observing their behavior in the world. The most striking characteristics are Aristotle’s moderation and common sense. His epistemology finds room for both reason and experiences; his metaphysics gives meaning and reality to both mind and body; his ethics aims at the good life, which is the contemplative life, but recognizes the necessity for moderate wealth, comfort, and pleasure. He also opposed Sophists assertion that the polo was contrary to nature. In his view, matter existed to achieve an end. He believed the purpose was moral and not economic nor military. The best state was called politeia, which gave the middle class power and combined justice with stability. So basically Aristotle combined the practical analysis of political and economic realities with moral and political purpose of the traditional defenders of polis. Buddha (366-486 B.C.E.) taught others his Middle Path between asceticism and indulgence. His path begin with realizing the four Noble Truths: 1) all life is suffering, 2) the source of suffering is desiring; 3) the cessation of desiring is the way to end suffering; and 4) the path to this end is eightfold. The eightfold is Right Understanding, Right Though, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration. The key idea of his teaching is that everything in the world of existence is causally linked. The essential fact of existence is dukkha: for no pleasure-however great-is permanent. Buddha attained nirvana, the extinguishing of karmic bondage, which became the starting point for the growth and eventual spread of Buddhist Dharma. Dharma assumed new and diverse forms in its long history. Confucius (551-479 B.C.E) received an education in writing, music, and rituals, and probably belonged to the lower nobility or the knightly class. He made his living by teaching. He was a man of moderation, propriety, optimism, good sense, and wisdom. Confucius wanted others to asked about death and how to serve the spirits and gods. He described himself as a transmitter and a conservator of tradition. He based his teachings on “The Book of Poetry, The Book of History, The Book of Changes, The Book of Changes Rites, and The Spring and Autumn Annals.” Confucius proposed to resolve the turmoil of his own age. He understood the fundamental truth that the well being of a society depends on the morality of its members. Confucius was to transform the old aristocratic code into a new ethic that any educated Chinese could practice. He also redefined chun-tzu to mean one of noble behavior, a person, with the inner virtues of humanity, integrity, righteousness, al truism, and loyalty. He saw ethics as grounded in nature. Good government depends on the appointment to office of good man. Mainly he is famous for his argument that humans tend toward the good just as water runs downward. 3) Define the concept of polis. What role did geography play in its development, and why did the Greeks consider it a unique and valuable institution? The polis was thought of as a community of relatives. All citizens from a common ancestor were theoretically descended, belonging to subgroups such as fighting brotherhoods, tribes, and élans. They worshipped the gods in common ceremonies. It’s virtues were order, harmony, and justice, and one its main objects was to produce good people. It was thought to be in accord with nature. Polis was one of episteme, science, a body of true, and unchanging wisdom open to only a few whose training, character, and intellect allowed them to see reality. Geography played a major part in the polis’s development. The farmers of the neighboring area would retreat to a defensible rock in case of attack. The word polis originated from a citadel (an elevated rock). For a time such high places and the adjacent forms made up the polis. The Greeks considered the polis as a unique and valuable institution. Once the new institution had been fully established, true monarchy disappeared. The polis provided various positive things that societies and groups could use. The polis provided military, grocery stores, and safety. 4) Compare the political, social, and economic institutions of Athens and Sparta about 500 B.C.E. Why did Sparta develop its unique form of government? (Sparta) Although the states had much in common, some of them developed in unique ways Sparta and Athens, which became the two most powerful Greek states, had especially unusual h...