Treatment of the Jews under Roman Christian and Arab Rule
...stians and Zoroastrians and few other communities. While under Roman rule, the Jews were identified as an “other” by being Jewish, under Muslim society they were just “non-Muslim,” and not the only community to fit under this category. In return for payment of taxes and adherence to certain other discriminatory practices, the dhimmis received assurances of religious tolerance and security for their lives and property. The Pact of Umar is a document of surrender and agreement between the dhimmis and Muslims presented by the second caliph Umar b. al-Khattab to the patriarch of Jerusalem. The fact that the Pact of Umar is in the form of a letter, implies that it is essentially a request and not a demand, indicating a desire to initiate a compromise between the Jews and the Muslims. A pact, by definition, is in effect a bargain between the two parties. At the outset of the letter, it is clear that the intention is to create an agreement between the two peoples. “In the name of Allah, the Merciful, the Beneficent. This letter is addressed to Allah’s servant Umar, the commander of the Faithful, by the Christians of such-and-such city. When you advanced against us, we asked you for a guarantee of protection from our persons, our offspring, our property, and the people of our sect, and we have taken upon ourselves the following obligations toward you..” (Hallo, 85) It then goes on to list the various responsibilities towards the Muslims in return for protection. The structure of the Pact of Umar is not meant to dictate policy towards non-Muslims, as laws under Roman-Christian rule did, but to create and agreement between the dhimmis, which in turn ensures deferential treatment of the Jews under Islamic rule in comparison to the Roman-Christians. In addition to the structural differences that exist between each dominant ruling class, there are also distinct difference to be found in the language used to describe the Jewish people by the Christians and Muslims. The language found in the laws of the Roman Christians specifically sets out to separate the Jews from other citizens and infer the idea that they are inferior and subordinate to the Christians. In the Laws of Constantine the Great, he describes the Jewish religion as an “abominable sect,” (Hallo, 79) and warns that if anyone were to join such a thing, that they will be punished. The definition of abominable, according to American Heritage Dictionary, is something that is unequivocally detestable; loathsome; thoroughly unpleasant or disagreeable. By very definition, using the word abominable to describe the Jewish religion implies that it is virtually less than human, and should be looked at in such a manner. Also, the Laws of Constantius, describe the Jewish people in a similar way when speaking of marriage to Christian women, stating, “ This pertains to women, who live in our weaving factories and whom Jews, in their foulness, take in marriage…This prohibition is to be preserved for the future lest the Jews induce Christian women to share their shameful lives. If they do this, they will subject themselves to death…” (Hallo, 80) Again, in this passage the language used by Constantius is very degrading towards the Jews and worded in such a way that anyone who is Jewish ought to feel embarrassed and ashamed. Finally, the hostile phraseology used by the Roman-Christians when comparing the Jews to the Christians illustrates most clearly the severe disdain towards followers of the Jewish religion. In “A law of Theodosius II,” the Jews are starkly contrasted with the Christians. Theodosius describes the Jewish religion as, “…dangerous sects which are unmindful of our times.”(Hallo, 80) He goes onto to relate the Jews to the Christians when he states, “We believe it sinful that the enemies of the heavenly majesty…should have power to judge or decide as they wish against Christians or even the bishops of our holy religion.” (Hallo, 80) Pitting the Jews against the Christians is clearly a sign of animosity and hatred on the part of the Roman-Christian authorities. While the documents concerning treatment of the Jews under Christian rule consistently make it a point to denigrate followers of Judaism through the use of certain language and phrases, the Pact of Umar nowhere indicates a similar attitude. The pact nowhere mentions the Jews as a distinct people, and does not in any way attempt to degrade their religion. Because the pact is speaking on the behalf of the dhimmis, the only mention of any religious affiliation in the pact is of the Muslim peoples, enumerating certain conditions the dhimmis will follow in exchange for protection and tolerance. Upon considering the language used between each of the major religious authorities, it is incontrovertible that a distinction exists between the two, with favorable treatment and regard of the Jews existing under Muslim rule, as evidenced in the Pact of Umar. Finally, the political relations that existed under the each of the dominant regimes also attributed to the favorable treatment of the Jews under the Pact of Umar and the Muslims. With the advent of Christianity under Constantine I, the Jewish peoples began to lose political power and prestige. Despite being the root of Christianity in their views of monotheism, the Jews were discriminated against by much of the Roman-Christian Empire. The political stance of the Jews under Roman-Christian rule was such that they became easily targeted as a group that was untrustworthy and in opposition to the goals of the rest of the state. Raymond Scheindlen describes this component of political life in A Short History, explaining that, “While some aspects of Judaism were widely admired in antiquity, others had aroused hostility.” (Scheindlen, 61) He goes on to say that pagans could not understand the lack of respect on the part of the Jews towards other peoples’ gods and rites. To the pagans, this attitude was seen as blasphemous and the Jews were considered atheists. Also, the Jews’ religious opposition to emperor worship made them suspicious of disloyalty to the state. This view of the Jews as disloyal was exacerbated by the history of rebellions by the Judeans. The political situation of the Jews was further worsened under Christian rule when...