Juvenile Delinquency
...esses, or events that are identified by analysts or by significant numbers of people as social problems. They affect large numbers of people, stem from social causes, and can only be solved through social action. Analysts, activists, governmental agencies and political officials do not always agree on what they define as a social problem. For some groups, for example, sexism is a social problem, and for others it is not. For some law enforcement agencies youth violence and crime is only a social problem because of a greater social problem, the leniency of the juvenile justice system. The FBI’s Uniform Crime Report (UCR) is a main source of crime statistics providing data on crimes against property (burglary, larceny-theft, motor-vehicle theft, and arson and crime against persons (murder and manslaughter, aggravated assault, forcible rape, and robbery). Problems with the UCR only includes crimes reported to police…how much crime goes unreported? only gathers statistics on “street crimes” committed by ordinary people, not the more “elite” crimes (e.g., fraud, price fixing, and toxic dumping) Methodology is to test the hypothesis of the study and examine the main questions raises. Below are a few groups that claim juvenile delinquency is a social problem and how they go about collecting their information. Participant observation with a group of juvenile delinquents or marginal youths are carried out. The aim is to collect more qualitative information about their life style and behavior. Through cautious participation and observation of the juvenile delinquents' daily and routine activities, sociologists hope to find out how their delinquent patterns have been influenced by environmental factors. Individual interviews by a way of structured questionnaire will also be used to collect information about the juvenile delinquents' perception of the environment. The interview is especially important for examining questions like "What kind of environment could encourage juveniles to make the rational choice' to commit delinquency?" This methodology also attempts to interview police officers and security guards about the effectiveness of both natural and official "guardianship" in these communities Community observation is to collect information about the physical features ofwhere juveniles live, systematic observations are carried out. Through several community surveys of the physical settings, Sociologists measure the prevalence or absence of environmental features suggested by CPTED as significant to crime control. By comparing the physical environment of the three studied areas the different environmental influences on the opportunity for juvenile delinquency can be gauged. Analysis of Official/Unofficial Statistic is designed in order to gain a fuller picture of the situation of juvenile delinquency. A comprehensive analysis of the official statistics is undertaken. Besides official data, other sources of statistical data produced by agencies such as District Social Service Center or Youth Committee and Census and Statistics Department (Crime Victim Survey) is also used. They pay special attention to information about the location of juvenile delinquency and the types of delinquency committed in particular places (Clarke). Since its inception, the Juvenile Court Statistics series has been the primary source of information on juvenile court activities in the United States. The first Juvenile Court Statistics report was published in 1929 and described cases handled during 1927 by 42 courts. At that time, few courts kept statistics or statistical records on the cases they handled. At the request of the Children's Bureau in the U.S. Department of Labor, courts volunteered to complete a statistical reporting card on each delinquency case they handled. In the mid-1940's, this case-level reporting was determined to be impractical. The primary focus of the reporting system then became aggregate counts of the number of delinquency cases handled by courts with juvenile jurisdiction. Each year, courts were asked to complete a single form that recorded the number of various case types they processed during the previous year. In 1957, the Children's Bureau (by then within the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare) initiated a new data collection program that for the first time in the history of the series enabled the development of national estimates of juvenile court activity. A stratified probability sample of more than 500 courts was constructed. Each court was asked to provide annual aggregate counts of the number of delinquency cases it handled. The statistical integrity of the Children's Bureau sample was difficult to maintain. After a decade, the project adopted a policy of collecting annual case counts from any court that could provide them. National estimates were then generated from this nonprobability sample. The national estimates presented in the Juvenile Court Statistics reports were generated with data from a large nonprobability sample of juvenile courts. Consequently, statistical confidence in the estimates cannot be mathematically determined. Although statistical confidence would be greater if a probability sampling design were used, the cost of such an effort has long been considered prohibitive. Secondary analysis of available data is the best practical alternative for developing an understanding of the Nation's juvenile courts. Those interested in a more detailed description of this estimation procedure are encouraged to review the method section of Juvenile Court Statistics. (http://ojjdp.ncjrs.org/ojstatbb/ezajcs/asp/methods.asp) Criminologists use words a certain way to indicate relationships between causes (independent variables) and effects (dependent variables). Here are some general guidelines that might help when reading some actual writing of a criminologist: "varies with" -- this means things fluctuate together; as one thing goes up, the other thing goes down; usually used to describe a possible inverse relationship but also used to describe a direct relationship. "where..." -- while not technically a verb, this word usually indicates a feedback relationship, where things go up or down in response to one another. Often, but not always, the case involves an important Z factor which moderates, distorts, or confounds the relationship. Relationals like "varies", "fluctuates", "predominates", "associated with", and "overrepresented by" are usually found when the theorist is dealing with socio-demographic variables, like age, race, or social class. "seems to be" -- this wishy-washy language usually means that the theorist suspects a weak relationship, probably way less than 50%. "tends" -- this might mean, but not always, that there are important Z factors which are antecedent, intervening, or contingent; that is, that come before, in the middle, or after an X and Y relationship. Or, it may be a cojoint relationship. "is conducive to" -- this usually means that the cause is a mysterious, unknown construct; typically found in highly abstract theories involving words like anomie, relative deprivation, norms, or controls. In some cases, it refers to a confounding or contextual relationship. (http://faculty.ncwc.edu/toconnor/criminology.htm) Causal Theories of Juvenile Delinquency: Social Perspectives Explaining crime and delinquency is a complex task. A multitude of factors exist that contribute to the understanding of what leads someone to engage in delinquent behavior. While biological and psychological factors hold their own merit when explaining crime and delinquency, perhaps social factors can best explain juvenile delinquency. Juvenile delinquency is a massive and growing problem in America. The social causes of juvenile delinquency encompass a wide array of theories that have been set forth by criminologists and sociologists. Some theorists view delinquency as a function of the individual while others view delinquency as a macro level function of society. Many of the theories that will be presented will be applicable to at least some instances of crime and delinquency in society. Crime is such a diverse topic, that the explanation of this social problem is just as diverse. Just as the causal factors of delinquency are diverse and numerous, so are the definitions. Calhoun and others state, "Sociologists define deviance as any behavior that members of a social group “define” as violating their norms. This concept applies both to criminal acts of deviance and non-criminal acts that members of a group view as unethical, immoral, peculiar, sick, or otherwise outside the bounds of respectability" (Calhoun 168) . While Calhoun's definition looks at delinquency as an act that defies or diverges from cultural and legal norms, others have founded their own definitions. V.A. Tomovic cites Breckenridge's definition of delinquency as "a condition arising in the matrix of sociopersonal disorganization and in the sequence of experience and influences that shape behavior problems. It is the product of dynamic social process, involving numerous variables and the failure of personal and social controls. It is a symptom of deep socioeconomic and social ailments" (Tomovic 45) . This definition of delinquency sees crime as a basic lack of positive social ties or bonds. It is important to note the distinction between crime and delinquency. Where as a crime is an act that breaks criminal code which is created by society though written law, delinquency and deviance can be acts that merely break “cultural law”or norms. Delinquency is usually specific and descriptive of age. Tomovic cites Redl and Winelian, "The legal concept of delinquency simply states which type of behavior is forbidden by law, in which state, for which age group of children and so forth. The cultural meaning of the word might summarize all statements indicating that a piece of behavior is in contradiction with the value demands of the dominant culture within which a given child moves" (Tomovic 45) . Politics and Crime: Constructing Problems and Defining Solutions Conservatives believe that people raised in strong, law-abiding families are unlikely to commit crime. Most conservatives favor tougher laws, more aggressive policing, and harsher penalties as ways to combat the crime problem. They believe the key to controlling crime is parents teaching children to make the right choices in a world of pressures. Liberals believe that many people live in situations that pressure them to break the law. Crime is caused by a harmful environment, particularly living in poverty. To liberals, jobs are the key to a drop in the crime rate. The radical left believes the real crime of society is tremendous economic inequality. The radical solution begins with a restructuring of the economic and political system toward a more egalitarian social order that can make a real claim to justice. Social Factors The theories that attempt to explain or predict delinquency mention and examine many different societal factors or units within society that are applicable within the theories. Families, peers, schools, and socioeconomic status are all social factors that are examined in many of the causal theories. Demographics and the relationships one has in society are also examined in some of the explanatory theories. Families are important to consider when trying to explain juvenile delinquency. The family unit is crucial to a child's development and healthy upbringing. In addition, much of what a child learns is through their family or guardians. A criminal parent can teach their child adverse lessons about life when their child views or witnesses their parent's delinquent behavior. Peers can also teach an adolescent or child criminal behavior just as the family member can. Family members and peers can also cause delinquent patterns of behavior by labeling their child as delinquent. This is somewhat of the "if the shoe fits, wear it" saying. If a child feels as though they are viewed as delinquent, then they will act as such and find a sense of self-esteem by doing so. Even though the family and peers (as well as the school) can influence a juvenile to participate in crime, the decision still rests on their shoulders. Some theorists argue that participation in crime is a rational choice and that the rewards and consequences are carefully calculated out by the individual. The choice to commit a crime can by influenced by many factors, including the ones that I outlined here. However, if a juvenile has many ties or bonds to members in society, they are less likely to make the choice to commit a crime for fear of ridicule, embarrassment, or scorn from those they associate with. The demographic characteristics of a person's living environment can also be a contributing factor to criminal patterns of behavior. Adverse living conditions and a crime-prone neighborhood can lead to criminal activity. There are also various structural theories that can put juvenile delinquency in a context of better understanding. Crime statistics, though they are often incomplete and may be misleading, do give an indication of the extent of the delinquency problem. The FBI reports that during the early 1980's, about two-fifths of all arrests in the United States for burglary and arson were of persons under the age of 18. Juveniles also accounted for about one-third of all arrests for larceny. During any year, about 4 % of all children between the ages of 10 and 18 appear in a juvenile court. The percentage of youngsters in this group who are sent to court at least once is much higher. A third or more of those boys living in the slum areas of large cities may appear in a juvenile court at least once. Girls are becoming increasingly involved in juvenile delinquency. Today, about one of every five youngsters appearing in juvenile court is a girl. In the early 1900's, this ratio was about 1 girl to every 50 or 60 boys. Sociologists have conducted a number of studies to determine how much delinquency is not reported to the police. Most youngsters report taking part in one or more delinquent acts, though a majority of the offenses are minor. Experts have concluded that youthful misbehavior is much more common than is indicated by arrest records and juvenile court statistics. Many studies have been made in an effort to determine the causes of delinquency. Just as important to understanding the contributing causes of juvenile delinquency are the structural and socioeconomic perspectives. Theorists often look at the way society is structured to explain why an individual has become prone to engaging in criminal or delinquent acts. One perspective is the functionalist viewpoint . This viewpoint states that juvenile delinquency and/or crime is a necessary and functional part of society. Symbolic-Interaction analysis focuses on how and why society defines some people who break the law as criminals while paying little attention to others. This perspective - what becomes a crime and who becomes a criminal - is part of a process of social definition that changes from time to time and from place to place. Howard Becker (Labeling Theory) believes that crime and all forms of rule-breaking results not so much from what people do, as from how others respond to those actions Structural functionalists examine the way in which society is structured and see society's structural characteristics as the driving force behind juvenile delinquency. This perspective examines social class, race and form of economy, as well as other factors, when predicting delinquency for juveniles or members of society. Conflict theorists look at society as a struggle between those in power and those who serve those in power or who have no say in society. This perspective views delinquency as a means of stimulating conflict in society and rejecting the dominant class and their culture, laws and norms. Strain theories look at how the structure of society contributes to those members in society who can't achieve their goals. This “strain” then contributes to an individual's rejection of culturally approved goals and leads to delinquency and criminal behavior. The social learning theory or the differential association theory states that crime is learned behavior. "People learn criminal behavior through the groups with which they associate. If a person associates with more groups that define criminal behavior as acceptable than groups that define criminal behavior as unacceptable, the person will probably engage in criminal behavior" (Leighninger 331) . Put another way, "just as people must learn though socialization how to conform to their society's norms, they must also learn how to depart from those norms. In other words, deviance, like conforming behavior, is a product of socialization" (Calhoun 176). This theory shows how a juvenile can socially learn deviant behavior from those around him/her such as family, peers, schoolmates or anyone else that he or she may come in contact with. The parents and peers are probably the most powerful agents in socialization. To exemplify this theory, imagine a child growing up in a home where the parents routinely engaged in criminal acts. The child would grow up assuming that these acts may not be as wrong as society or the law has defined them. If a child is around delinquent peers, one can also learn the activities of their peers and be much more prone to engaging in criminal activity. The rational choice theory is upheld by many conservatives who view juvenile delinquency from an individual based perspective. There are some psychologists who will argue that "those who deviate do not know what they are doing" (Calhoun 174). Rational choice theorists will argue this perspective. " They argue that in many (if not most) cases, deviance is a result of highly rational calculation of risks and awards. Prospective deviants weigh their chances of gain against the risks of getting caught, and thereby decide a course of action" (Calhoun 174). Juveniles however, do not always choose the most rational actions. There values are different than adults (and in many cases their values have not developed/formed fully yet), and there motives may be different than an adult criminal. Adolescents are also notorious for “not thinking” before they act! There actions which constitute delinquency may come as a result of acting our against authority , or to rebel against cultural norms and goals. For example, a juvenile may decide to set off a smoke bomb or ignore an administrator in a cafeteria as a act of defiance towards administrative authority in a learning institution. Merton states, "The first step in the logic of the functional approach... is to establish 'certain functional requirements of the organisms or (social systems), ... requirements which must be satisfied if the organism (or social system) is to survive, or to operate with some degree of effectiveness." (Tomovic 76) . The question is: how does functionalism relate to juvenile delinquency? Functionalists view crime and delinquency as a “function” or creation of society that serves a real purpose. Functionalists say that crime exists and will continue to exist in so far as society is structured as it is. The next question that one may ask is that if crime is necessary and serves a purpose, how is this? Crime is deviance from societal and legal norms. Without crime and ideological deviance, change in society would not be possible. Now, not all crime is positive deviance. But looking throughout history, one can see in retrospect, that certain acts that were defined as crimes at the time, actually spurred great societal change. An example of this would be the French Revolution, or even the American Revolutionary War. Both wars constituted acts of treason on the part of citizens by their defiance. Citizens of France and America during these wars committed crimes that the government deemed as such. However, looking at history, one can see how this defiance spurred great revolutionary thought in the history of mankind (i.e. The Enlightenment). Deviance and crime (including juvenile delinquency) challenges the status quo in society and in some cases, spurs change, negative or positive. Without deviance of thought, morals, and law one would find themselves in a communist-like society with no plurality of perspective. Understanding how units (people, institutions- i.e. prisons) and acts in society serve purpose is very important to understanding society as a whole. In addition, the structure of society itself can serve purpose and also lead to juvenile delinquency. Structural functionalism look at the way society is structured to explain juvenile delinquency. In certain situations, a society or even a neighborhood can be structured in such a way that promotes delinquency and criminal behavior. Merton states, "some social structures exert a definite pressure upon certain persons in society to engage in non conforming rather than conforming behavior" (Calhoun 174) . Calhoun continues by stating, "American society was Merton's prime example. Our culture places tremendous emphasis on financial success. Children are raised not only to believe that they might become President of the United States but also to dream that they might become millionaires. At the same time, legitimate opportunities to become wealthy in our society are limited" (Calhoun 174). These structural and ideological "dreams" can cause great distress for those who can not reach these goals. In many cases, and as structural functionalists would view crime, this distress or strain causes delinquency. A juvenile who is told that he or she can not go to ...