Organisational Behaviour
...ntrol (Rotter – Wood p107) 2. authoritarianism/dogmatism 3. Machiavellianism 4. monitoring Value congruence when individuals express positive feelings about encountering others who exhibit similar values to their own (SG p33) Nine Top Work-Related Values (p112) – Jamieson & O’Mara, 1991 Components of Attitudes (Wood p115) – antecedents →attitude → result Cognitive Dissonance – perceived inconsistency between attitudes & actions - the greater it is, the greater the pressure to reduce it, through: 1. changing the underlying attitude 2. changing future behaviour 3. developing new ways of rationalising the inconsistency Relationships (SG p35) between: • satisfaction & productivity (low correlation) • satisfaction & absenteeism (weak negative correlation) • satisfaction & turnover (stronger negative correlation) Perceptual Distortions,(selective perception) caused through processes such as: 1. stereotying 2. halo effect 3. selective perception 4. projection 5. expectancy Attribution theory – fundamental attribution error (tendency to overestimate personal influence and underestimate situational factors), self-serving bias (tendency to deny responsibility for failure, accept responsibility for success) WEEK 3 – MOTIVATION & EMPOWERMENT Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory (Wood p143) • physiological • safety • social • esteem • self-actualisation Alderfer’s ERG Theory (Wood p145) McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory (Wood p146) • need for achievement (NAch) • need for affiliation (Naff) • need for power (NPower) Herzberg’s two-factor theory (Wood p148) • dissatisfiers/hygiene factors (job context) • satisfiers/motivator factors (job content) Adams Equity Theory (Wood p154) Note people adjust their behaviour according to perceived inequity, and negative effects tend to last longer than positive effects (Greenberg, 1988). Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (Wood p157) M=ExIxV Woods integrated model of motivation – p161 WEEK 3 – LEARNING, REINFORCEMENT & SELF-MANAGEMENT Types of Learning • classical conditioning (association) – stimulus-response learning (p179) • operant conditioning (consequences lead to change of probability of occurrence). Operant conditioning has substantial applications in the workplace. • cognitive • social Types of Reinforcement • positive reinforcement (positive consequences) • negative reinforcement (avoidance withdrawal of negative consequences) • punishment (negative consequences) • extinction (withdrawal of reinforcing consequences) • multiple meanings of pay – p194 – equity, expectancy and reinforcement perspectives. Common management Reward Follies (Kerr, 1995) and causes – see article Motivation is culture bound – see Week 3 slides p17. WEEK 4 – GROUPS • formal vs informal • purposes of groups – to meet organisational, individual needs- why people join • Likert’s linking pin model, p263. (informal groups add complexity – p266) • 12 Key Concerns for managing groups (Wood p269) • synergy • social loafing • disruptive behaviours • 10 characteristics of an effective group (Wood p273) Tuckman’s 5 stages of Group Development (Tuckman 1965) (Wood p282) • forming, storming, initial integration (norming), total integration, adjourning Punctuated equilibrium model (Gersick 1989) as an alternative to Tuckman – see slide WK 4, p4. Group Communication Networks: • interacting • decentralised • coacting • centralised • counteracting Group Decision Making Methods (Wood p287): • lack of response • authority rule • minority rule • majority rule • consensus • unanimity Group outputs – task vs group activities (Schein, 1988) • task performance o initiating o seeking information o giving information o clarifying o summarising • group maintenance o encouraging o harmonising o compromising o gatekeeping o setting standards o following Group decision making processes (Schein 1988) – lack of response, authority rule, minority rule, majority rule, consensus, unanimity. Advantages and disadvantages – see SG p62. Managing agreement – the Abilene Paradox – SG p654. Groupthink (Janis 1982) – symptoms SG p 64 , Wood p290. Minimising Groupthink see SG p65. Intergroup Competition as needing to be managed but potentially helpful to productivity (Wood p296) destructive to productivity (Kohn 1987) – see SG p67. Team Building • overcoming obstacles (p314) • 10 rules to create effective teams (p317) • 7 tips to encourage positive team norms (p325) • increasing team cohesiveness (p327) WEEK 5 – CULTURE, POWER, CONFLICT & NEGOTIATION Key dimensions of corporate culture (Robbins & Barnwell, 1989): 1. individual initiatives 2. risk tolerance 3. direction 4. integration 5. management contact 6. control 7. identity 8. reward system 9. conflict tolerance 10. communication patterns 3 Levels of cultural analysis (Deal & Kennedy 1982) – observable, shared values, common assumptions. Elements of strong corporate cultures (Deal & Kennedy 1982): 1. widely shared philosophy 2. concern for individuals 3. recognition of heroes 4. belief in ritual and ceremony 5. well-understood sense of informal rules and expectations 6. belief that what employees do is important to others Subcultures, Countercultures SG p78. Sources of Power (French & Raven, 1959): Position Based: • reward • coercive • legitimate • power over information Person Based: • expert • referent Kotter (1977) believes that managers derive power primarily from personal style and skill, use of political behaviour and the sense of obligation, while Kanter (1979) believes that power is derived primarily from position in the organisational structure. Obedience vs authority (Milgram experiments, Barnard’s consent of the governed – 4 preconditions) Obedience & zone of indifference (an effect of the psychological contract) Strategies for enhancing position power – p482 Turning power into influence – p483. Kipnis’ (1980) – 7 strategies – reason, friendliness, coalition, bargaining, assertiveness, higher authority, sanctions (tactician preferred operation – SG p85). Yukl’s model of power & influence. Contingencies in selection of power tactic: Manager’s relative power Manager’s objectives Manager’s expectation of success Organisation’s culture Cultural differences in preferred power tactics Power keys to empowerment – p485 Organisational politics – two views: politics as unsanctioned and self-interested vs politics as a compromise between competing interests Double-edged sword of organisational politics – p494 Use politics to overcome personnel inadequacies, cope with change, substitute for formal authority Ethics of political action – should achieve utilitarian outcomes, individual rights, distributive justice. Conflict: • Managers spend about 20% of their time dealing with conflict (Bailey et al, 1991) • substantive vs emotional • intrapersonal, interpersonal, intergroup, interorganisational • constructive (Johnson, 1990) vs destructive • destructive, productive, integrative (Boulding, 1989) • “It is possible indeed that the freest exercise of will is the renunciation of power” (Boulding, 1989) ...